Need help with Anatomy and Physiology? Want a quick review or refresher for class? This is the book for you! REA’s Anatomy and Physiology Super Review gives you everything you need to know! This Super Review can be used as a supplement to your high school or college textbook, or as a handy guide for anyone who needs a fast review of the subject.• Comprehensive, yet concise coverage – review covers the material that students must know about anatomy and physiology. Each topic is presented in a clear and easy-to-understand format that makes learning easier.• Questions and answers for each topic – let you practice what you’ve learned and build your anatomy and physiology skills.• End-of-chapter quizzes – gauge your understanding of the important information you need to know, so you’ll be ready for any homework assignment, quiz, or test.Whether you need a quick refresher on the subject, or are prepping for your next exam, we think you’ll agree that REA’s Super Review provides all you need to know! ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY SUPER REVIEW Need help with anatomy and physiology? Want a quick review or refresher for class? This is the book for you! CONCISE SUBJECT REVIEW Covers the material students typically learn in an introductory anatomy and physiology course. Clear, easy-to-understand format makes learning easier. PACKED WITH PRACTICE Topic-level questions with detailed explanations let you practice what you’ve learned and build your anatomy and physiology skills. TEST WHAT YOU’VE LEARNED End-of-chapter quizzes reinforce key concepts, so you’ll be ready for any anatomy and physiology problem you encounter on your next quiz or test. Introducing the Human Body 1.1 Anatomy and Physiology Anatomy - Anatomy is the study of the structure of body parts. It is also the study of the relationship among these parts. The heart, for example, consists of chambers, valves, and associated blood vessels. Physiology - Physiology is the study of the function of body parts. The parts of the heart, for example, work together to pump the blood throughout the body. There is a close association between anatomy and physiology. Structure complements function. The four chambers of the heart have muscular walls that contract to pump the blood. The makeup of the valves prevents the backflow of blood. 1.2 Levels of Organization The anatomy of the human body is composed of different levels of organization. These levels represent a series of steps. Each level is a building step for the next level. These levels are: Atom - All matter consists of elements. These simple substances exist as discrete, submicroscopic particles called atoms. The four most common elements of the human body are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Molecule - Atoms bond into molecules. About 65 percent of human body weight consists of water molecules. Smaller molecules bond into larger molecules that have biological functions. Monosaccharides (e.g., glucose), for example, bond into polysaccharides (e.g., starch). These carbohydrates are an energy source. Organelle - Molecules compose the parts of the cell called organelles. Each of these parts carries out a specific function. The ribosome, for example, is the site of protein synthesis. Cell - The cell is the smallest unit displaying the properties of life. Cells tend to specialize. There are about 200 different kinds of specialized cells in the human body. Neurons (nerve cells) send signals. Leukocytes (white blood cells) fight infection. Tissue - Similar cells function together in a tissue. Muscle cells work together in skeletal muscle tissue. These cells contract, producing body movement. Organ - Two or more tissues work together in an organ. The heart is an organ that consists of several tissue types. Organ Systems - Organs with related functions are part of the same organ system. The heart and blood vessels are organs of the circulatory system. They function to circulate the blood throughout the body. Organism - All organ systems make up the organism. The organ systems of the human body include the nervous, circulatory, respiratory, and digestive systems. 1.3 Anatomical Terms Anatomical terms are used to describe the makeup of the body accurately and concisely. All of these terms are used with reference to anatomical position. In this position the subject studied is facing forward and standing erect. The arms are hanging at the sides. The palms and toes are pointed forward. 1.3.1 Directional Terms Directional terms compare the relative position of one body part to another body part. These terms occur in pairs. The members of each pair have opposite meanings. Superior/Inferior - Superior means closer to the head. Inferior means closer to the feet. The neck is superior when compared to the chest, which is inferior. When compared to the abdomen, the chest is superior and the abdomen is inferior. Anterior/Posterior - Anterior (ventral) refers to a part that is closer to the front of the body. Posteri