In this biography of Joaquín de Arredondo, historian Bradley Folsom brings to life one of the most influential and ruthless leaders in North American history. Arredondo (1776–1837), a Bourbon loyalist who governed Texas and the other interior provinces of northeastern New Spain during the Mexican War of Independence, contended with attacks by revolutionaries, U.S. citizens, generals who had served in Napoleon’s army, pirates, and various American Indian groups, all attempting to wrest control of the region. Often resorting to violence to deal with the provinces’ problems, Arredondo was for ten years the most powerful official in northeastern New Spain. Folsom’s lively account shows the challenges of governing a vast and inhospitable region and provides insight into nineteenth-century military tactics and Spanish viceregal realpolitik. When Arredondo and his army—which included Arredondo’s protégé, future president of Mexico Antonio López de Santa Anna—arrived in Nuevo Santander in 1811, they quickly suppressed a revolutionary upheaval. Arredondo went on to expel an army of revolutionaries and invaders from the United States who had taken over Texas and declared it an independent republic. In the Battle of Medina, the bloodiest battle ever fought in Texas, he crushed the insurgents and followed his victory with a purge that reduced Texas’s population by half. Over the following eight years, Arredondo faced fresh challenges to Spanish sovereignty ranging from Comanche and Apache raids to continued American incursion. In response, Arredondo ignored his superiors and ordered his soldiers to terrorize those who disagreed with him. Arredondo’s actions had dramatic repercussions in Texas, Mexico, and the United States. His decision to allow Moses Austin to colonize Texas with Americans would culminate in the defeat of Santa Anna in 1836, but not before Santa Anna had made good use of the lessons in brutality he had learned so well from his mentor. “Bradley Folsom’s  Arredondo  is a beautifully written and thoroughly engaging biography of the much-maligned and forgotten ‘Caligula’ of the northeastern provinces of New Spain. Eschewing facile moral judgements, Folsom provides a complex portrait of the Spanish royalist commander who during the Mexican War of Independence controlled—and allegedly terrorized—an area that included present-day Texas and Tamaulipas. Beyond Arredondo’s notorious cruelty, Folsom highlights the political and social realities that gave rise to the choices men in positions of power, like Arredondo, were forced to make. For anybody interested in Mexican-U.S. borderland history, this book is a must.”— Will Fowler , author of  Santa Anna of Mexico Bradley Folsom is Professor of History at Grayson College in Denison, Texas. Arredondo Last Spanish Ruler of Texas and Northeastern New Spain By Bradley Folsom UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA PRESS Copyright © 2017 University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, Publishing Division of the University All rights reserved. ISBN: 978-0-8061-5697-2 Contents List of Maps, Acknowledgments, Introduction, 1. Like Father, Like Son, 1775–1791, 2. Servant of the Crown, 1791–1810, 3. The Conquest of Nuevo Santander, 1811, 4. Arredondo as Administrator and Delegator, 1812, 5. Fire and Sword, 1813, 6. The Battle of Medina, 1813, 7. Caligula in Texas, 1813–1814, 8. The Viceroy of the North, 1814–1815, 9. A Government of Order and Good Administration, 1815, 10. Unlawful Enterprises, 1815–1816, 11. The Siege of Soto la Marina, 1817, 12. A False Peace, 1817–1818, 13. A Reduction of Authority, 1819–1820, 14. The Coming of Mexican Independence, 1820–1821, 15. After Arredondo, 1821–1837, Conclusion, Appendix: Romance de Arredondo, Notes, Bibliography, Index, CHAPTER 1 Like Father, Like Son, 1775–1791 You do not have to be only on the defensive, but ready to set out on a sortie to annihilate them on the battlefield. — Nicolás Arredondo IN 1791 JOAQUÍN DE ARREDONDO went to visit his father in the Río de la Plata, a remote region of Spain's American empire. At the time, Joaquín was a young cadet in the Spanish military. His father, on the other hand, was a viceroy, meaning he was second only to the king in a region making up much of South America. Although the details of the visit between father and son are lost to time, Joaquín's future actions make clear that he learned much from the interaction. Indeed, the young officer would later conduct his affairs in northeastern New Spain in a strikingly similar manner to the way his father ran the Río de la Plata. To properly understand the future commandant general of the eastern provinces, it is necessary to look at his father, his family, and the history of the nation to which he would declare his allegiance. Joaquín de Arredondo was born to a wealthy noble family that had called northern Spain home for centuries. The first people to use the name Arredondo lived in the province of Cantabria