History of Nebraska was originally created to mark the territorial centennial of Nebraska and then revised to coincide with the statehood centennial. This one-volume history quickly became the standard text for the college student and reference for the general reader, unmatched for generations as the only comprehensive history of the state. This fourth edition, revised and updated, preserves the spirit and intelligence of the original. Incorporating the results of years of scholarship and research, this edition gives fuller attention to such topics as the Native American experience in Nebraska and the accomplishments and circumstances of the state’s women and minorities. It also provides a historical analysis of the state’s dramatic changes in the past two decades. "A balanced, thorough history and a must for anyone writing about Nebraska."—Bill Markley, Roundup Magazine "With the extensions and revisions provided in the fourth edition, History of Nebraska remains, as its authors hoped it would, a rich resource for students and policy-makers."—Spencer Davis, Nebraska History "In comparison to previous editions, the greater emphasis on recent scholarship and more extensive use of primary sources results in a work of greater depth. This lively account will likely remain the definitive general history of Nebraska for some time."—Chuck Vollan, South Dakota State Historical Society Ronald C. Naugle is professor emeritus of history at Nebraska Wesleyan University. The author and editor of numerous books, he is coeditor of Nebraska Quilts and Quiltmakers and the online edition of Encyclopedia Britannica’s Nebraska . John J. Montag is professor emeritus of library and information technology at Nebraska Wesleyan University. James C. Olson (1917–2005) was president emeritus of the University of Missouri. He is the author of several books, including Stuart Symington: A Life . History of Nebraska By Ronald C. Naugle, John J. Montag, James C. Olson UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA PRESS Copyright © 2014 Board of Regents of the University of Nebraska All rights reserved. ISBN: 978-0-8032-8626-9 Contents List of Illustrations, List of Maps, List of Tables, Preface to the Fourth Edition, 1. The Environment: Land, Water, People, 2. Historic Peoples and European Contact, 3. An American Empire, 4. Indian Country, 5. The Platte River Road, 6. Nebraska Territory, 7. The Politics of Statehood, 8. Building Connections, 9. Rails across the State, 10. Cultures in Conflict, 11. Shifting Power on the Plains, 12. Years of Settlement, 13. Agrarian Hardships, 14. Cattle and Cow Towns, 15. The Passing of the Frontier, 16. Power to the People: Populism, 17. Populism to Progressivism, 18. Prosperity and the Great War, 19. Postwar Challenges, 20. Postwar Progress and Modernity, 21. Depression, Relief, and Recovery, 22. Nebraska and World War II, 23. Progressive Legacies, 24. Prosperity and Party Ascendancy, 25. Beyond the Centennial: New Realities, 26. Holding the Line on Expanding Costs, 27. Recession, Banking Crises, and Recession Again, 28. Economic Development and Nuclear Waste, 29. Change and Continuity: Demands and Costs, 30. The New Millennium, Appendix 1. Officials of the Territory of Nebraska, 1854–67, Appendix 2. Governors of the State of Nebraska, Notes, Selected Bibliography, Index, CHAPTER 1 The Environment Land, Water, People In The Great Plains: From Dust to Dust Deborah Epstein Popper and Frank Popper concluded in 1987 that the population and agricultural development of the plains had been a mistake that required a daring proposal for dealing with an inevitable disaster. Writing from New Jersey, the Poppers set off an ongoing debate about the fate of the middle of America and consequently most of Nebraska. They claimed that depleted water supplies, declining land values, and the resulting widespread exodus of farmers from the plains would lead to the almost total depopulation of the region over the next generation. Responding to their own bleak prognosis with several ideas for federal action, the Poppers concluded that "the most intriguing alternative would be to restore large parts of the Plains to their pre-White condition, to make them again the commons the settlers found in the nineteenth century." That idea was summarized by the phrase "buffalo commons." Visiting Nebraska in 1990 and again in 1993, the Poppers pointed out that the 1990 census showed that depopulation on the plains continued. Fifty of fifty-two Nebraska counties proposed as part of a buffalo commons had lost population in the previous decade. Challenged from the audience, Frank Popper responded, "We are not telling you how to plan the future of the Great Plains! We are just giving you the statistics and describing what you are doing to yourselves." Depopulation continued. The 2000 decennial census reported another decline in the state's population, following a trend evident i